The ancient Sumerians also believed that Eridu was the first city in the world and they documented that belief in the Sumerian King List and the Eridu Genesis. The above microscopic morphology analysis revealed that the quartz particles on the surface of the feldspar sandstone had a hard texture and stable properties, making it difficult to damage. "We can have a close look at every detail of the cavesthe statues and the decorations. For the layout of the grottoes, large caves were dug to house the giant statues, 13-15m tall. The relative content of the minerals in the feldspar sandstone was analyzed by the semiquantitative analysis software Xpert Highscore Plus, as shown in Table 2. This result could also be verified by the apparent phenomenon. Therefore, feldspar sandstone in the same stratum as that of the Yungang Grottoes was selected for the tests. In the process, due to the different physical properties (composition and density) and different spaces occupied by the new and old materials, a large number of microcracks, that is, secondary cracks, were generated. The Yungang Grottoes are ancient Chinese Buddhist temple grottoes near the city of Datong in the province of Shanxi. The other two grottoes are the Yungang Caves near Datong in Shanxi Province, . Evolution process of the lateral strain field of the feldspar sandstones (Group B) after the dry-wet cycles. At the micro/mesoscopic level, the Group A and B feldspar sandstones had decreased relative content of feldspar, increased relative content of kaolinite, enlarged microscopic pores, more microcracks, and larger surface height deviations. 33, no. He added that the cave-wall-strengthening project, which has been implemented for more than six decades, will be completed in one or two years. The Yungang Grottoes are also a treasure house of ancient Buddhist art, the largest of its kind in China. The grottoes' construction in Yungang stopped in 524 when a large-scale rebellion erupted around this area and caused huge chaos, and ten years later, the Northern Wei Dynasty (386 534) ended. The Yungang Grottoes Research Academy has been exploring diverse applications of digital technologies for the conservation, research, management, and exhibition of cultural heritage. The Yungang Grottoes (Yungang Caves), Datong, N. China The strength of the feldspar sandstone rapidly decreased after reaching the peak strength, indicating that although the feldspar sandstone was subjected to multiple dry-wet cycles with the salt solution, the feldspar sandstone still showed remarkable brittle properties when loaded to destruction, whereas the brittle properties decreased with the increase in the number of dry-wet cycles. The clay minerals included not only kaolinite (which was secondary clay) formed by the reaction between water and feldspar but also the primary clay of feldspar sandstone. This resulted in a decrease in the wave velocity and an increase in the saturated water absorption for the physical properties as well as a decrease in the compressive strength for the mechanical properties of the feldspar sandstone, thereby increasing the number of fine cracks at the destruction of feldspar sandstone samples. For privacy reasons, she has previously written on Ancient Origins under the pen name April Holloway, but is now choosing to use her real name, Joanna Gillan. (e) Point 3. According to the analysis of the macroscopic physical and mechanical properties, the main physical and mechanical parameters of the feldspar sandstones after multiple dry-wet cycles were all weakened. Buddhism arrived in this location via travel on the ancient North Silk Road, the northernmost route of about 2600 kilometres in length, which connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerging in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia. T. Belem, F. Homand-Etienne, and M. Souley, Quantitative parameters for rock joint surface roughness, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 73, no. The 53 grottoes in Yungang include some 1,000 niches with about 51,000 statues - a treasure trove of grotto art that combines traditional Chinese art forms with foreign influence, particularly Greek and Indian. However, Chinese officials and preservationists have now embarked on an ambitious effort to protect them that could become a model for saving antiquities at other sites. Without written authorization from CDIC, such content shall not be republished or used in any form. In addition, the diffraction intensity and the relative content of the K-feldspar and illite in Group A and Group B were low, and those of kaolinite were high. Cave 5 houses the largest carving at Yungang -- a stunning Sakyamuni in meditation. While influenced by Buddhist cave art from South and Central Asia, UNESCO said Yungang Grottoes interprets Buddhist art with a Chinese characteristic and local spirit. Therefore, in addition to the hydrolysis reaction, there should have also been a reaction between the sulfate and the feldspar as follows: The reaction between the feldspar and the sulfate produced kaolinite and at the same time released sodium ions to form more sulfate. The contrast is very dramatic.. The average saturated water absorption of the feldspar sandstone after the dry-wet cycles was calculated using formula (1). (b) Destruction pattern. 2, 3, and 12 showed that the severely weathered parts of the grottoes were generally at spots where there was abundant water or a water outlet. It was hence only possible that the relatively weak cementing materials of the feldspar were damaged and they fell off, eventually causing quartz particles to be exposed on the surface and thus increasing the surface roughness. (3)The mechanism of the salt-rock interaction was that of the interaction between the salt solution and the feldspar sandstone. The Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi, are famous for their spectacular scenery, and they hold a pivotal position among the cultural relics of China. Wikipedia:Yungang Grottoes In particular, the salt crystallization was the most remarkable for the deterioration of the feldspar sandstone. This also confirmed the conclusion of the particles falling in the macroscopic apparent analysis. There have been numerous studies on the physical and mechanical properties of feldspar sandstone and ordinary sandstone, such as those above-mentioned [913]. They have a U-shaped plan and arched roofs . It could be preliminarily predicted that the dry-wet cycle could degrade the mechanical properties of feldspar sandstone. The Yungang Grottoes Site, formerly called Wuzhoushan Grottoes, is built at the foot of Wuzhou Mountain on the western side of Datong City. The caves range in width from 23 m to a few metres. The longitudinal wave velocity of the feldspar sandstone was measured by an NM-4B-600 nonmetal ultrasonic detector. M. Steiger, Crystal growth in porous materials-II: influence of crystal size on the crystallization pressure, Journal of Crystal Growth, vol. The wooden buildings extant in front of caves 5 and 6 were constructed in 1621, during the early Qing Dynasty. Since the 1950s, cracks in the sandstone have been sealed by grouting, and forestation has been implemented in an effort to reduce the weathering due to sandstorms. The academy operates a number of museums and galleries, allowing visitors to explore the grottoes' history and hidden details with the assistance of digital, virtual and augmented reality technologies, as well as replicas made with 3D-printing technologies. The area was excavated along the mountain, extending 1 km (0.62 miles) from east to west, revealing 53 caves and over 51,000 stone statues. Central Asia Afghanistan South Asia Southeast Asia Yungang grottoes by Jinchao Zhao Buddha inside Cave 18, Yungang, Datong, China (photo: Zhangzhugang, CC BY-SA 3.0) Imagine peering into a cave and seeing a monumental carved Buddha peer right back at you. Yungang Grottoes was added to the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list in 2001. The uniform distribution stage was located in the initial stage of the stress-strain curve, for which the shear strain was small and uniformly distributed. When the compressive stress exceeded the tensile strength of the cement of the feldspar sandstone, secondary microcracks were produced, as shown in Figure 15(a). In the figure, Y-0 represents the curve of the dry undisturbed feldspar sandstone, A-25-2 is the curve of the Group A feldspar sandstone after 25 dry-wet cycles, and B-25-1 is the curve of the Group B feldspar sandstone after 25 dry-wet cycles, where Q, P, K, and I denote quartz, sodium potassium feldspar, kaolinite, and illite, respectively. (b) Elastic modulus. (a) 5T. (b) 10T. (c) 15T. (d) 20T. (e) 25T. Apparent properties of the feldspar sandstones (group B) after a salt-rock dry-wet cycle. Figure 11 shows the XRD patterns of the Group A and Group B feldspar sandstones after dry-wet cycles. Then, two things happened: either Chaos or Gaia created the universe as we know it, or Ouranos and Tethys gave birth to the first beings. 34, pp. Although these measures have had a protective effect, the problem of weathering has not been solved. The work on this first period of carving lasted until the year 465 AD, and the caves are now known as caves 1620. All of the grottoes were excavated in the fifth and sixth centuries along a one-kilometer stretch following the contours of the mountains. The grottoes were built in association with the mountains, from the east to the west spreading for about 1000m with grand momentum and diverse subjects. 99, pp. The analysis of the weathering of grottoes no. M. A. Coombes and L. A. Naylor, Rock warming and drying under simulated intertidal conditions, part II: weathering and biological influences on evaporative cooling and near-surface micro-climatic conditions as an example of biogeomorphic ecosystem engineering, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol. What's your favourite Fairy Tales (and their possible origins), The Faces of Ancient Hominids Brought to Life in Remarkable Detail, The Dutch Bond that's Still Paying Interest After 375 Years (Video). The results are expected to provide a reference for the stability evaluation and protection of the rock mass of the Grottoes. P. D. Sumner and M. J. Loubser, Experimental sandstone weathering using different wetting and drying moisture amplitudes, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol. China Daily | Yungang Grottoes - China Daily To protect these stone cultural relics from weathering, the Yungang Grottoes Research Institute, among other organizations, has also implemented a large scale of protection work, including protection measures such as seepage prevention, dehumidification in the Grottoes, and drainage. The change rate of the longitudinal wave velocity, R, is defined aswhere is the initial longitudinal wave velocity of the feldspar sandstone and is the longitudinal wave velocity of the feldspar sandstone after n dry-wet cycles. Exquisite Pagoda Column of the 6th Cave Built During this Period, Photo from Official Site of Yungang. Yungang Grottoes: Cave 7 - Dome The composition of the single quartz particle as the core surrounded by various components of the matrix was regarded as a simple unit of feldspar sandstone. The resolution of the CCD camera was 1630 pixels1224 pixels, the object surface resolution of the test was 0.0347mm/pixel, the image acquisition rate was 2 frames/s, and the field of view was selected to be 30mm80mm. 30793088, 2014. The stress-strain characteristics of the feldspar sandstone essentially reflected the damage caused by the dry-wet cycles with a salt solution. They are excellent examples of rock-cut architecture and one of the three most famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China. The weathering mechanism of the salt-rock interaction included, in addition to the above three effects, salt crystallization in the pores or fissures and the chemical reaction between the minerals (e.g., feldspar and calcite) and sulfate. Sweden's Great Lake monster, often referred to as "Storsjodjuret" or the Storsj Lake Monster. Y. Qin, Y. Wang, L. Li, and J. Huang, Experimental weathering of weak sandstone without direct water participation by using sandstone from the Yungang grottoes in Datong, China, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. The damage process occurred continuously from the outside to the inside, resulting in the nonuniformity of the damage area of the feldspar sandstone. "And we are told the history and stories behind every detail. Yungang Grottoes were added to the World Cultural Heritage List in December 2001. S. J. Yan, J. Q. Chen, Y. Dou, and P. Sun, Characteristics of Yungang grottoes sandstone and weathering simulation tests, Geoscience, vol. . In the 1980s and 1990s, as the coal industry in Shanxi Province powered growth throughout China, up to 20,000 coal trucks passed each day. Excavations in 1998 and 2019 unearthed hoards of ancient stone armor in and around the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang. 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